Gallardo’s Goes To Mexico Business Analytics Essay

Situation: â€Å"Growing but not winning†- The US market for Gallardo’s sauces, salsas and seasoning had saturated. Having seen immense potential for its product, it entered the Mexico market in 2001. They have grown 20% every year, and their share has grown from 12% to 15%. They have positioned their products on the basis of the jobs carried out by customers, which was a success in the US. Despite all of their efforts to discover separate, distinct jobs to be done and to position their brand on these jobs, they are not growing fast enough and have not been able to overtake California. Gallardo tried to position itself as a distinctive aspiring brand that commanded a significant price premium, however this has not worked and they have not been able to differentiate their products from that of California. Gallardo’s discovered the job-to-be-done, the market leader already had a product in the market that could readily do the job. Objective: To formulate a winning strategy so as to make it a market leader in Mexico. Hypothesis: 1. Gallardo has not been very successful in forging a strong link in the consumers’ minds between the jobs carried out by them and Gallardo’s brand. 2. The communication strategy is a major challenge and there is a need to re-position the brand in the minds of the consumers. 3. Gallardo has not been able to provide value to Mexican women, who are very passionate about cooking. 4. Gallardo holds only 10% share in general trade which accounts for 90% of the overall sales of salsa, sauces and seasoning. Evaluation: 1. Gallardo 2. Gallardo has positioned itself as a product to get a job-done; however, it is equally important to consider the user while positioning the product especially where the demographics of the new market are so different from the company’s market in USA. As per the case, the women in advertisements were not representing the common women in Mexico. Hence, making the brand distant from its users. 3. Although Gallardo could picture the passion for cooking, it couldn’t provide the value to its consumers. This was mainly because of their premium pricing. For example, a small deficiency in California products can be compensated by a little amount of salt or pepper. For this minor adjustment, consumers didn’t find it justified to pay 30-40% more. They were not getting any additional value of the product offering. The product attributes and usage experiences required to do the â€Å"jobs† were not well distinguished from each other, further enlarging this gap. Their products were designed on experience, which the consumer was already having. In short, we can say that value propositions offered by Gallardo were not unique enough to sell it. 4. The figure of 10% shows that there was very less penetration in the general market. This needs to increase as it shows the huge amount of untapped market for Gallardo. This would include distribution and household penetration beyond urban.

Teacher Who Influential Your Life

The person who influential me to become a better writer was my sixth grade English teacher Ms. Campbell. Ms. Campbell was not a normal English teacher. She taught us many writing technique that I still use today. I remember this one day in English class; Ms. Campbell was teaching us the fan boys out of no where she started rapping the fan boys. Still to this day I can remember the rap that she taught us. Ms Campbell had different ways of each us. Ms. Campbell would suck your right in she made us think out of the box. Also, Ms. Campbell had this way to make writing exciting, and that you cannot live without writing. There never was a day that was not interesting in English class. Ms. Campbell was the one who inspired me to write everyday. She would always tell her students â€Å"when you have bad days write about it. † Ms. Campbell was one of the reasons why I wanted to become a writer. She had a way of make me feel that I can become anything. Ms. Campbell would teach us how to write complete sentence. Everything Ms. Campbell taught us she made it into a rap song. We would help her put the rap together. I remember Ms. Campbell was in front of the class we were learning about the writing process. Ms. Campbell went to her desk, and said whoever the first person to say what the steps of the writing process are would get this big chocolate candy bar. I never had seen so many hands go up so fast. Even through no one know the step of the writing process Ms. Campbell gave everyone candy. Ms Campbell never gave up on her students she always pushes us to finish what we started. There were so many things that I learned from Ms. Campbell, but this lesson I will never forget. The lesson was an essay question was what do you want to be when you get older? Ms. Campbell made us write whole paper about the topic, and then made us share with the class. After, that Ms. Campbell hangs them all over the class to see how other students write. Another lesson Ms. Campbell taught me was remember that everyone have different writing from each other all writes have different stories. Ms. Campbell had these little riddles fro example, sticks, and stone might break my bones, but words do hurt. Ms. Campbell had all these different sang for every problem. One of my favorite lessons that Ms. Campbell taught me was independent clause. We would sing it to Aretha Franklin song RESPECT. Another, favorite lesson that she taught me was run-on sentence and fragments. When Ms. Campbell taught us run on sentences her example was talking with out stopping. Then her other example with fragments she would write a fragment on the board and ask us is this complete sentence. Another, lesson that Ms. Campbell taught us was about transition words she had a rap for transition words too. Ms. Campbell is not normal English teacher she had this spark about teaching us about writing process, fanboys, run on sentence, fragments, independents clauses, dependent clause, and transition words. Everyday I could not wait for the bell to ring to go to Ms. Campbell English class room 106. Ms. Campbell never lost faith in her students she always had faith in her students. She always gives us good feed back. Ms. Campbell made writing exciting. Ms. Campbell lesson stayed with me. For example, fanboys rap, writing process, independent clause song, and last but not least comma rules. Ms. Campbell was an amazing English teacher she taught me so much. That I’ll never forget what an amazing teacher Ms. Campbell was.

Entry of the Brand Kensie into My Store Research Paper

Entry of the Brand Kensie into My Store - Research Paper Example I believe that the location of my store on this street is ideal for the most working class and middle-class parents can see the store and walk in to find clothes for their children. The location is also ideal to attract more customers as they go by their schedules. My store is located near office blocks and also restaurants. It is convenient for those going to work and also those going out for lunch or dinner. My decision to bring in the Kensie brand in my store stems from the fact that my sales and revenue have been steady over the past few years. Many customers come back to buy more junior clothes for their children. Since my store targets middle-income earners, it means that most can afford the prices of the Macy brand. It is important to understand that the merchandise I sell is localized as a reflection of the location where my store is located (Los Angeles). Having offered localized merchandise for some time now, I decided to expand my product choice by bringing in the Kensie brand. The target market of the Kensie brand is still young children. The introduction of this brand is certainly going to stir excitement and curiosity among shoppers at my store which eventually draws more customers. However, due to competition, it is necessary to note that other stores may decide to take on the same marketing strategy as me. To avoid this, it is critical that I make careful planning to ensure that my store stands out. One of my competitive advantages is the location of my store and my target market. My strategy involves the continued sale of exclusive and localized merchandise. Increasing my merchandise by bringing in the Kensie brand is a sure way to increase my sales. One of the challenges that I have to face with my target market of the middle and high-income earners is that these two groups are always seeking to get hold of the newest and most exciting thing in the market. This group is challenging and difficult to impress.

Academic Study Skills Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Academic Study Skills - Essay Example Most academic work involves building on work that has been done by others. The provision of new insights about the specific area of research contributes to the building on what others in the field have done. To build on someone’s work might involve having to use their ideas to come up with your line of argument to support your new idea. It is in this instant of using someone’s ideas to come up with your point of view that it is important to use references. The use of references ensures that people who have contributed work to a particular field get good credit for their work. Besides, one learns to foster intellectual honesty by giving others credit for their work hence avoiding the vice of plagiarism.What is plagiarism and how can you avoid it?Plagiarism refers to the practice of stealing another person’s ideas or writings and passing them off as your own (Clabaugh & Rozycki, 2001, p. vii). Plagiarism is a fraudulent practice as it involves stealing someone's wo rk and then lying about it. Based on the severe nature of plagiarism, it is necessary to avoid it at all costs.One of the ways to avoid plagiarism is to learn the art of crediting the sources one uses. Whenever one uses phrases, data and other information that they did not come up with themselves, then one should give his sources the credit. To get better at crediting sources, one should analyze their sources critically to know exactly which author did what (Clabaugh & Rozycki, 2001, p. 56).

Organizational Culture and Harley-Davidson Case Study

Organizational Culture and Harley-Davidson - Case Study Example The success of Harley-Davidson as a company can be attributed to its strong organizational culture. Harley-Davidson management strived to rediscover the things their company did best and was gifted with the knowledge of what culture could help achieve its vision of the future. Its leaders consciously re-examined its community roots and undertook actions that served long-term corporate and community purposes (Burack, 1993, p. 78). According to Schuster and Weidman (2006), Harley-Davidson's culture could be described as participatory because it imbues "collaborative decision-making at all levels". Schuster and Weidman (2006) shared that this company applies "collaborative model" because it decentralized the senior management's decision-making down to its salaried-only work groups. Although Harley-Davidson management considers this culture as a "work in progress", it has already attained various success levels throughout the organization. The continued exposure of their leaders and plan t floor employees into working productive teams, the company has gained non-traditional opportunities and it increased the level of employee support for this practice of labor-management partnership. Harley-Davidson's is an epitome of a company's effective approach to people management No doubt, organizational culture... Conversely, failure to comply with cultural norms generates social pressures to conform; thus the individuals would either align with the cultural expectations or face ostracism and ridicule by their peers. Much of this process occurs in an informal and unspecified manner, filling in the gaps left by rational organizational control systems such as reporting relationships and job descriptions. Ultimately, it is the customers that benefits in the application of a We have recommended for Harley-Davidson to establish a website where customers and potential customers can convene, the site will be called "Harley Dreamers" and the goal of this website is to promote Harley-Davidson events and while linking our customers to each other. The site will also offer a "Swap Meet" portion of the website, where subscribers could post ads for motorcycles and parts for sale or for trade. Another feature would be a site like "Bike Log", which could complement the "Swap Meet" site because people purchasing a bike from the site will be able to see where the bike has traveled and users can share their good or bad experiences using Harley-Davidson's motorcycles. "Swap Meet" should be free for all Harley-Davidson customers, since this is the great selling point for getting people to subscribe to this site. Lastly, the "Technical Information Center" is a vital feature of the site where subscribers can obtain answers directly from Harley-Davidson professionals who wo uld answer to their needs 24-hours a day. The GPS system will also enable users to track a bike or they can simply chat with other bike owners about their experiences on our blog. Incidentally, decentralized and collaborative decision-making that already exists in Harley-Davidson culture can work best with

Open Veins of Latin America Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Open Veins of Latin America - Term Paper Example On the other hand, Latin America existed in bondage and the significance of self-identity was not accessible to them (Galeano 12). In most cases, the colonizers seize the natural resources of the colonized nation, and they send to their own country. Earlier, the colonized people used to be sold out as slaves to other countries that used to liaise with the colonizers. Those who try to resist the rule of the colonies are tortured and jailed for long sentences without trial (Galeano 12). However, hard fighting, struggling and opposition to the rule of the colonizers and major revolts have led to the collapse of great colonizers. Therefore, the fall of colonizers is inevitable, and it cannot remain intact forever (Memmi 36). This write up will explore the relationship that exists between colonizers and the colonized, by looking at a typical example of colonizers and the colonized. Further, the paper will display the reasons that led to the downfall of some of the greatest colonizers. Thi s relationship will be explained in the context of colonialism. The basic argument in this essay is that, the objective situation that man finds himself in, determines his character, personality and behavior (Memmi 44). The cognitive map of then colonized and the colonizers, as well as their perceptions, influence the way they react to colonialism (Galeano 12). The behaviors of colonizers are characterized by brutality, bigotry, exploitation and oppression. Colonizers assume this behavior towards the colonized immediately a colony is established. The social rules and institutions that already influence this conduct in existence, in the colony. It is essential to note that, colonialism is chiefly driven by economic gain. The consciousness of the bondsman and the master oppose each other as the master works hard to maintain the status quo, while the slave strives to break the bondage. This results to a revolt that ends the era of oppression. However, the freed slaves experience many d ifficulties when reorienting themselves to live with abundant freedom. They were used to experiencing the harshness of their master to a point of thinking that that harshness is the best way of life. To reinforce this argument, this paper will look at the example of Italians who did not have any economic interests from their colonies (Galeano 22). The Italians maintained a close relationship with the colonized, almost to a point of forgetting that they were colonizing a nation. This is very different from what used to happen in Latin America, as her Europeans maintained a great distance between them and the Americans. Another reflection is on how the colonizers view the colonized. They judge the colonized using their own standards that are highly subjective. The portrait that colonizers carry about the colonized is mythical, and it lacks any objective truth in it (Galeano 31). Negative traits are incorporated in the attribution that colonizers have toward the colonized. These attrib utes include corruption, laziness and civilization deficiency in the eyes of the colonizers. Racism issue is central to this discussion as it undermines the struggle for fair treatment and justice among members of the human family (Galeano 44). Racism is characterized by imaginary expressions that are substantive towards an accused person by the accuser to their own benefit. Further, colonizers spread racism propaganda that turns the colonized to an

THE USE AND ABUSE OF HISTORIC PRECEDENT Research Paper

THE USE AND ABUSE OF HISTORIC PRECEDENT - Research Paper Example Some of the stylistic architectural designs applied mostly in Los Angeles include but not limited to the Ancient Egypt and Japanese architecture. These styles were rampant in the olden days but as time went by, different architectures resolved into reinterpreting them into the modern ways of constructing buildings. This paper will seek to explore how stylistic period in architectural history namely Ancient Egypt and Japanese architecture has been reinterpreted in the buildings found in contemporary Los Angeles. In presenting the reinterpretation, MarYella Hotel, Roman Gardens, Church of Christ Scientist and The Getty Center buildings will be used as as a clear illustration of transformation to modern buildings in Los Angeles. The history of the period and structure of Ancient Egypt The Ancient Egypt was an architectural style used by architects to design buildings, which came to be very influential sites during and after civilization. Studies show that the Ancient Egypt style of cons truction started and ended in the years between 3050 BC and 900 BC (Nicholson and Ian 45). During this time, architects managed to develop a large and vast array of monuments that ended up being very great, famous, and influential to an extent that the following generations carried the knowledge with them. This style of architecture had a number of characteristics among those who involved themselves with it. First, the architects used two predominant materials during the construction of almost every building, which were stone and sun-baked mud bricks respectively (Roseman 51). Prospects have come to put across that, architects applied the Ancient Egypt construction style mainly because there was advent scarcity of wood. During and after the so-called Old Kingdom, architects had an obligation to reserve stone for building temples and tombs whereas use bricks in building fortresses, royal palaces, and walls of towns as well as temple precincts. In some instances, ancient Egyptians pre ferred using the Ancient Egypt style of constructions in erecting buildings due to the presence of hot and dry climate that preserved brick structures for a long time. Thus, one could point out that some of the reasons why the Egyptians resolved to build buildings using bricks, which was a major component of construction materials during the Ancient Egypt, include the prevailing climatic conditions. This is clearly illustrated in MarYella Hotel Architecture. Additionally, Roseman argues that the Ancient Egypt stylistic method of construction served as a way of aligning events astronomically (58). For example, the ancient architects who applied this style in building temples ended up recording certain events such as the equinoxes and solstices, which later provided people with the measurement and time when such an event took place. To some extent, this style had some religious significance, which appears to have been presided over by the Pharaoh himself with reference to ceremonials that signified their opening. The Japanese architecture The Japanese architecture is indeed very complex and according to architectural analysts, it had many characteristics. Traditionally, the Japanese architectural style of construction was typified by structures made of wood, slightly elevated off the ground, and thatched with roofs or tiles. Further, Roseman evidences that structures made using the

Entrepreneurial Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Entrepreneurial Finance - Essay Example The SMEs are mostly started by youngsters with vision and drive, and in many cases, the businesses started at a modest level could grow as a big business empire. The failure stories may be mainly due to lack of financial support at the initial stages or lack of experience in running the business. The community of SME promoters needs to be encouraged and supported by the government for the balanced economic development in the country. Apart from the financial assistance, they need to be provided with necessary training in the aspects such as financial matters and marketing for running the business efficiently. The recommendations made in the paper seeks to address these lacunae through a government sponsored and structured institutional backing for SMEs to support them financially. With regard to training, the associations for SMEs need to be formed, if it not already existing in a particular case, and strengthened to render training facilities to the promoters or employees of the SME s in various areas which include financial management, marketing, quality control methods and R&D relating to various businesses Introduction The niche areas in various businesses offer immense scope in the context of SMEs for specialization, growth and development with limited competition because the projects with limited or localized demand and limited investment outlay are not suitable for the growth of big corporate companies. This is one of the reasons why corporate companies concentrate on retail, telecom, food processing, housing and infrastructure where the volume could be scaled up and the growth prospects for the big companies are compatible with the level of investment. Therefore, in the absence of acute competition and the need for only limited investment outlay and labor requirement, superior level of personalized service and specialist experience in the chosen field have been the prime drivers of the growth of the SMEs over the period of time. Hussain, Milman & Matlay (2006 p. 586) states â€Å"In recent years, policy makers in the UK have attempted to address the apparent market failure to supply adequate and specific finance for SMEs†. The efforts should be based on continuous review and radical restructuring of the domestic economy in the backdrop of liberalization and globalization. Background The small and medium enterprises play a significant role in the economic development of a country. World Business Council for Sustainable Development states that the SMEs can play a much bigger role in developing national economies, alleviating poverty, participating in the global economy and partnering with larger corporations. For an economic growth to be sustainable in the long run, the growth must be balanced encompassing all the sections of the society. There are certain misgivings about the growth and development of SMEs promoted and run by ethnic minority people. Financing in respect of SMEs depends on various factors, but aligning the fin ancial needs of the ethnic minority SMEs with the mainstream national growth and development is very important for a peaceful prosperity. Objectives The objective is to identify the causes for the disparity in financing to small and medium projects promoted by the ethnic minority people, analyze the causes leading to this problem and recommend solutions to overcome these problems.

The needs of future generations are being met by current policies of Essay - 2

The needs of future generations are being met by current policies of sustainable development. To what extent do you agree with this statement - Essay Example It defines it as the development that satisfies the current human needs without reducing the availability of the resources to the future generations. It breaks it into two concepts. The first concept concentrates on the needs and in particular the needs of the poor. Its second approach is on limitations. Its approach on limitations focuses on social and technology factors, and their ability in ensuring that environment use meets the present and future generations wants (Dobson & Lucadrie 2002, p. 85). It further defines development that is sustainable as the progressive transformation of the society and economy (Dobson & Lucadrie 2002, p. 85). It is, therefore, vital to concentrate on the three pillars of sustainable development; social, political, and economic factors to ensure the continuity of future generations. Researchers are of the opinion that governments still believe on the old development paradigms. They emphasize on economic growth while believing that other industrialized countries have made no changes to their patterns of production and consumption that threaten global resources. Meeting the goals of sustainable development require genuine institutional and political will by governments in all countries. The countries should contribute to it regardless of whether they are developed or not (Purvis & Grainger 2013, p. 177). Weak law enforcement, corruption, and ineffective governments are obstacles in achieving sustainability. Limited policy capacity, lack of information, and incompetent decision makers are some of the reasons for the minimal cooperation by governments. The World Summit discussion on Sustainable Development held in 2002 in South Africa maintained that the sustainable development has not evolved out of its roots. Focusing the issue on an environmental direction rather than integrating with an all-round development perspective is a mistake. The political agenda replaces

Through the two main characters of Rhodaand Gertrude Essay Example for Free

Through the two main characters of Rhodaand Gertrude Essay Through the two main characters of Rhoda and Gertrude the writer allows the reader to know his opinion on gender equality at the time. As well as criticising the way in which men treat women, he also states his feelings on how women treat other women and their selves. Rhoda is firstly represented as a mysterious, lonely and segregated person who has a history with the character, Farmer Lodge. This assumption can be taken from the way the fellow workers treat Rhoda and their conversations involving Farmer Lodge and his new bride. For example one milk maid says, Tis hard for she while looking at Rhoda who is described by the writer as, a thin fading woman of thirty milked somewhat apart from the rest. This description is just, because the workers speak blatantly about Rhoda and her past, even though she is in hearing distance. It is like they are aware of her presence, but choose to discount it because Rhoda, in their eyes is worthless. This leads the reader to think what Rhoda has done in order to be isolated from the group and be treated with such an obvious mix of contempt and sympathy. The initial conversation in the workplace also highlights how differently men and women are treated and how differently their roles in life really are. The reader can see that Rhoda and Farmer lodge have some kind of history and they are aware of what peoples reactions to Rhoda are, yet it is clear that the man, who has presumably participated in the same secretive affair is treated with a more positive and accepting attitude. Despite the workers still gossiping about his wedding and debating his age, there doesnt seem to be as much scandal about his past, any references made are directed about Rhoda and her involvement. The next paragraph begins with the workers leaving for home, Rhodas seclusion because of past events and her womanhood, are highlighted once more in the line, lay apart from that of others, to a lonely spot The readers also learn that she has a son as a result o a past affair with Farmer Lodge, your father brings his young wife Rhodas obsessive nature concerning her past love is also made clear. She continually asks her son for details in order to compare Gertrude with herself, If shes dark or fair, and if shes tall The writer uses Rhodas insecurities to symbolise how men drive women to desperation, how they cause women to doubt themselves and loose confidence in their own mind and body just because of a mans actions and how they choose to treat women, in this case in a disparaging way. The writer also uses Rhodas self- absorption (his mother not observing that he was cutting a notch with his pocket-knife); obsessive fixation on Gertrudes appearance and the twisted gratification she receives at hearing of Gertrudes faults (She is not tall. She is rather short. He replied. Ah! said his mother with satisfaction) to criticise how weak some women can be. The writer sympathises with Rhodas mistreatment but also pities her for allowing she to become a victim in the first place. This opinion is later confirmed when Rhoda is so consumed with envy and scorn that she dreams about Gertrude. The dream being a metaphor for her inner feelings. Up to this point the writer doesnt prompt much sympathy for the character of Rhoda as she is construed as bitter and slightly vindictive, yet after the event we see a softer side to her. She does worry when she meets Gertrude and notices that she does in fact have a withered arm. She is racked with guilt and remorse (Rhodas heart reproached her bitterly) and we see that she isnt just a hostile ex with a chip on her shoulder and that she does actually care as the writer shows us in the line, This innocent young thing should have her blessing not her curse. Throughout the rest of the story Rhoda does her best to help her replacement Gertrude and not because shes only feeling guilt but because she actually likes her. Gertrude at the beginning of the story is described as Rhoda Brooks opposite, (of Rhoda), there was more of the strength that endures in her well-defined features and large frame than in the soft cheeked woman before her. Gertrudes initial character is kind, cheerful and in the trend of the time was completely devoted to her husband. It was only after her husbands reaction to her withered arm did she begin to change into an irritable, superstitious woman. Instead of supporting her and showing her unconditional encouragement and affection Farmer lodge froze her out, making her feel ugly, useless and eventually causing her to take drastic measures, which were most out of her once caring and sensible character. The writer uses the lines, I shouldnt so much mind it if-if I hadnt a notion that it makes my husband dislike me-no love me less. Men think so much of personal appearance, to once again criticize both males and females of the time. Men for making women degrade themselves in order to pathetically please their man and women for allowing themselves to be so hopelessly dependant on a males approval and love. He is saying that, that kind of relationship is destructive, to a female especially since most men of the time focused solely on appearance, Yes; and he was very proud of mine at first. The writer uses the characters of Rhoda and Gertrude as a kind of before and after picture. In the beginning we see that Rhoda Brook is a lonely, poor woman who is branded a witch and thought of as highly scandalous yet we see Gertrude as an innocent and beautiful young woman, the later image is ironic because the beautiful Gertrude does transform into a Rhoda-like being, bitter and obsessive. The writer is allowing us to see the process in which vanity, reliance, obsession and the behaviour of men towards women along with the nature of the female friendship enables the downfall of a person.

Theoretical Approaches to Perception Processes

Theoretical Approaches to Perception Processes Cognitive psychologists differ in their views on the processes involved in perception. Outline two theoretical approaches to perception and provide empirical support for each. Introduction Explanations of perception seek to explain and better understand the process that facilitates the transformation of sensory information from the environment into the experience of objects, sounds, and movement. One of the most established fields of psychological research, studies in perception range from basic recognition of shape, colour, and form, to the more complex relationship between, motion, attention and performance (Eysenck, 2005). In the early 1900’s, a group of psychologists sought to show how people organize fields of information during perception, memory, and thought (eg: Duncker, 1945; Koffka, 1935; Kohler, 1940; J. M. Mandler G. Mandler, 1964; Wertheimer, 1945/ 1982. In Barsalou, 1992). Since then, the distinctions between the work of cognitive and perception psychologists have become less obvious, with cognitive and behavioural approaches increasingly being used in the effort to understand the complex process of visual perception. As experimental approaches ha ve brought about more refined empirical techniques, a greater number of theories have developed in order to help explain the phenomenon. This essay focuses on James Gibson’s theory that perception and action are very closely related. Gibson first put forward this theory more than fifty years ago (Eysenck, 2005). The second theory under discussion is the Constructivist approach, which posits that experience formed in memory assist the observer in making informed judgements about the size, shape, form, etc of an object. Gibson (1979) first brought into discussion the term ‘direct perception’ relating to the idea that we pick up enough information from the visual environment to form a conscious version of what we see and that we do not need to use higher levels of cognitive processing in order to understand the visual world (Cardwell et al, 2004). Part of Gibson’s theory maintained that perception depends upon the existence of a number of cues which inform the brain about the size, shape, and texture of objects, and the distance away from the observer that they lie. Gibson’s work is unique as he based his findings on experiments conducted outside of laboratory conditions although still very much within a controlled environment with measurable results. Part of Gibson’s work has helped develop new technological features at airports to help pilots develop their depth perception, while the application of his flow patterns idea has been incorporated into the constructions of roundabouts to create the illusion for drivers that they are accelerating on their approach and thus making them slow down (Cardwell et al, 2004). The applicability of these theories to real-life situations increases their relevance and causes them to be an attractive explanation as to how we perceive our visual environment. Gibson (1979) expounded upon what he meant by ‘direct’: â€Å"So when I assert that perception of the environment is direct, I mean that it is not  mediated by retinal pictures, neural pictures, or mental pictures. Direct perception is the activity of getting information from the ambient array of light. I call this a process of information pickup that involves the exploratory activity of looking around, getting around, and looking at things. (1979, p.147) Gibson posited that it was in the nature of light as an optic ray that facilitated our understanding of objects and material reality. Gibson’s studies of observation he claimed were founded upon his experiences in World War II. When carrying out aviation experiments, Gibson concluded that the laboratory approach to the study of depth perception could not be suited to improving a pilots ability to land an airplane, and that it was necessary to study perception outdoors into the natural environment. According to Goldstein (1981, p.191), in Gibson‘s ‘ground theory’ visual space ‘is defined not by an object or an array of objects in the air (as occurs for depth cues such as interposition, relative size, etc.) but rather is defined by the ground, a continuous surface or array of adjoining surfaces.’ Gibson’s texture gradient suggests that there exists a rate of change in texture density. For example, a the gaps in a rail track appear to get closer together the greater the distance over which they are perceived (Eysenck, 2005). Gibson measured his findings in real life situations of perception where the observer is not stationary in a laboratory and ‘observing’ rather, Gibson believed in the importance of the observer being active, constantly moving their eyes, head and body in relation to the environment (Goldstein, 1981). Gibson’s work has been continuously investigated by other researchers who have been keen to establish its strengths and weaknesses. For example, Greenberg and Donnell (1972) found that the ‘weakness of stripes or straight contours does have some touch points in research on infant and adult perception.’ (In Pick and Gibson, 1979, p.71). While very young infants preferred to look at checks over stripes (Greenberg and Donnell, 1972), MacKay and Jeffreys (1973) recorded that adults looking at parallel lines in contrast with lines that had corners or breaks in them, showed more visually evoked potential for the checked an broken lines, but was relatively small for the parallel lines (Ibid). Whereas Mayzner and Habinek (1976) found in tachistoscopic experiments that the ‘threshold is much lower for detecting contours that change in direction than it is for detecting those that do not’ ( Mayzner Habinek, 1976. In Pick and Gibson, 1979, p.71). These forms of empirical research have dated well as they highlight basic dichotomies between shapes and forms and how they are perceived by the human eye and thus translated as information by the brain. There is not much scope for disproving Gibson’s theories rather, the challenge of his work lies in whether his explanations of perception are enough to explain the complexity of understanding the material world. Gibson also made an insightful point as to the nature of research and theory of perception that ‘the starting point of perceptual research and theory depends critically on the language used to describe the information available for perception’ (Carlson, 1997, p.76), and that psychologists are thus apt to partially self-define the objectives and results of their own experiments. In ostensible contrast to Gibson’s work, the Constructivist approach places less emphasis on the nature of the visual stimulus itself and focuses on the implications of stored memories (Cardwell et al, 2004). Past experience thus shapes and informs present experience. Gibson’s idea that perception is founded upon cues provided by the object itself is reversed in this approach to understanding perception, where perception is effectively constructed by the memory. Gregory expounded upon Gibson’s theory by experimenting with the idea that visual stimuli are basic ‘starting points’ upon which the observer makes informed guesses about their meaning (Cardwell et al, 2004). Constructivist theory has received much empirical support, beginning in the early 20th century with the work of Tichener (1914). Boring (1946) worked with, and altered these experiments, to produce the well-known 1941 Holway and Boring experiment. Here, participants observed the size of a disk, from varied distances. Holway and Boring sought to reduce the number of distance cues available to participants, and found that the more that cues â€Å"reduced†, the poorer the size perceptions recorded. Boring concluded that perception needed a cores stimulus, and a mediating context informed by cues. Size perception thus relies upon a perceived distance that allows the observer to make informed judgements. In such laboratory experiments there exists the hypothesis that certain illusions persist in our perception of the world this was a crucial element of the Constructivist theory. Gibson criticised the empirical research for these approaches, highlighting their artificiality and inapplicability to real-life. Furthermore, if perception is analogous to our making judgements and decisions this would not explain how precise perception is ie: if Constructivist theory is correct then we would make many more mistakes in how we perceive the world. To conclude, neither approach is meant to be an alternative to the other rather they are used in conjunction with each other, and the type of processing employed will depend on the type of visual stimulus present in front of the observer. In her discussion about the relevance and scope of cognitive theory, Disessa quotes Marton who has heavily criticised the efforts of cognitive science to explain human experience (Disessa, 1993). Disessa goes on to say that ‘whether for systematic or accidental reasons, cognitive science has not done particularly well at illuminating the structure of experience.’ (1993, p.261). If cognitive approaches are to ultimately succeed, then they need to focus more on explaining consciousness itself (Barsalou, 1992), rather than the mechanisms which define consciousness. Other explanations have attempted to identify the behavioural aspects of sensory experience which indirectly inform the observer as to the nature of their experience. For exam ple, Ludwig (1999) suggests that as well as being able to perceive shapes visually and through touch, we also gain information through other sensory modes. He gives the example of knowing through smelling the scent of a mango that the fruit of the smell’s origin is round; here, shape is not perceived by a visual judgement, but is inferred from ‘the character of ones sensory experience and collateral information that an object of a certain shape caused it.’ (Ludwig, 1999, p. 29). There will no doubt continue to be variations and expansions upon the work of Gibson, and of the older constructivist theories yet the fundamental precepts of each theory remain as integral to the study of perception as they did over fifty years ago. The relationship between the static or stationary observer and the material world will ultimately rely upon the distance, texture, and shape of the perceived object, while the degree to which perception relies upon past experience is yet to be fully understood. References Barsalou, L.W. (1992) Cognitive Psychology: An Overview for Cognitive Scientists. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Boring, E. G. (1946). Perception of objects. American Journal of Physics, 14, 99-107. Cardwell, M; Clark, L; and Meldrum, C. (2004) Psychology. London: Collins. Carlson, R.A. (1997) Experienced Cognition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Disessa, AA. (1993) Cognitive Responses. Cognition and Instruction, vol 10. Issue: 3, p.261. Eysenck, M.W. Keane, M.T. (2005). Cognitive Psychology: A Student’s Handbook, (5th Ed) Hove: Psychology Press. Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Goldstein, E.B. (1981) The Ecology of J. J. Gibsons Perception. Leonardo, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 191-195. Holway, A. H., Boring, E. G. (1941). Determinants of apparent visual size with distance variant. American Journal of Psychology, 54, 21-37. Ludwig, K. (1996). Shape Properties and Perception. Philosophical Issues, Vol. 7, pp. 325-350. Pick, A.D, and Gibson, E.J. (1979) Perception and Its Development: A Tribute to Eleanor J. Gibson. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Titchener, E. B. (1914). A textbook of psychology. New York: Macmillan.

:: Papers

ESSAY John Steinbeck novel, ‘Of Mice and Men’, contains three characters who could be described as social misfits. In this essay I am going to describe Candy, Crooks, and Curley’s wife and examine what Steinbeck is attempting to tell the reader about the lives and situation of each of these characters. The book, ‘Of Mice and Men’, was set in the depression of 1930s in California in a place called Soledad. ‘Of Mice and Men’, can be viewed as a compassionate story of John Steinbeck for the hard life, poor, old age ,unskilled workers displaced by the depression a bad economic and high unemployment with no hope and no future. They had to leave their families and homes just to make money. Candy is such a character. He is the bunkhouse cleaner and he is old and has no family and the only old man on the ranch. We are told him in the book, that he is a good natured old gossip. He is a useful source of information about all the character at the ranch. We know because when George and Lennie arrive in to the ranch, Candy tells them about all the characters and also tells them about what is going on in the bunkhouse, for example when he says to George and Lennie about Curley, â€Å"Curley like a lot of little guys. He hates big guys†¦.† So first of all they know that how aggressive and bad guy Curley is. He is fond of his dog even though it is old and smelly. Candy had that dog since it was a pup. His dog is his only friend; old same like Candy. Carlson offers to shoot his dog. But Candy resists for his old, smelly, nameless dog, â€Å"No, I couldn’t do that. I had `im too long.’ Candy knows if he allows his dog to be shot he will become lonelier because that is the only companion he got and he will lose it. But Carlson is determined. Eventually he leads the dog out into the darkness of the night and to its death.

iraq :: essays research papers

iraq Background: Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied by Britain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared a League of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages over the next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in 1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a series of military strongmen ruled the country, the latest was SADDAM Hussein. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and costly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized Kuwait, but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the Gulf War of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UN Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of mass destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verification inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC resolutions over a period of 12 years resulted in the US-led invasion of Iraq in March 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Hussein regime. Coalition forces remain in Iraq, helping to restore degraded infrastructure and facilitating the establishment of a freely elected government, while simultaneously dealing with a robust insurgency. The Coalition Provisional Authority transferred sovereignty to the Iraqi Interim Government (IG) in June 2004 and the election of its president, Ghazi al-Ujayl al-YAWR, was held in January 2005,it’s capital is Baghdad. Climate: Iraq is located in the Middle East ,bordering the Persian Gulf between Iran and Kuwait ,it is mostly desert. Mild to cool winters with dry, hot, cloudless summers, the northern mountainous regions along Iranian and Turkish borders experience cold winters with occasionally heavy snows that melt in early spring, sometimes causing floods. It’s national disasters consists of dust storms, sandstorms, and most likely in spring, floods.

Cocaine and the Brain: The Neurobiology of Addiction Essay -- Biology

Cocaine and the Brain: The Neurobiology of Addiction In the eyes of the public, the word addict stirs up a negative image: a person of low moral character who willfully chooses to engage in questionable behavior. This image is perpetuated in the media; on a recent episode of E.R., the chief surgeon criticizes another doctor for allowing a heroin addict (who has been treated for an abscess) to exchange a dirty needle, explaining "we donà ¢t want these low-lives hanging around the hospital." The social stigma attached to addicts reflects the great gap that exists between scientific knowledge and public perception of addiction. Just as mental illness was viewed as a social problem instead of a medical issue until the last several decades, drug addiction continues to be seen as a character flaw instead of as the biological problem that it is. As defined by the American Psychiatric Association, addiction is a "chronically relapsing disorder that is characterized by three major elements: (a) compulsion to seek and take the drug, (b) loss of control in limiting intake, and (c) emergence of a negative emotional state when access to the drug is prevented" (1). This disorder results from the repeated use of a drug over a prolonged period of time, causing physical changes in the brain. Perhaps the most addictive of drugs is cocaine. Cocaine acts on the mesoaccumbens dopamine (DA) pathway of the midbrain, extending from the ventral tegumental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens (NAc). (2). This pathway is also known as the reward pathway as it is the area of the brain that is activated when someone has a pleasurable experience such as eating, sex, or receiving praise. (NOTE: The reward pathway was discovered through the technique of... ...se%2fform%2facademic%2fs_genjourn_more.html%25a3AD_FORM%25a4s_genjourn%25a3T1%25a4cocaine%20addiction%25a3S1%25a4Title%25a3S2%25a4AND%25a3T2%25a4Morris%2c%20Kelly%25a3S3%25a4author%25a3S4%25a4AND%25a3T3%25a4%25a3S5%25a4Title%25a3date%25a4AFT%25a3after%25a45%3aYR%25a3frm_rng%25a4%25a3to_rng%25a4%25a3srccat%25a4GENMED%3bALLJNL%25a3source%25a4$srccat%25a3pubtitle%25a4%22The%20Lancet%22%25a3srclf%25a4%25a3srclf_group%25a4%25a3srclf_title%25a4%25a3&wchp=dGLSzS-lSlAl&_md5=9d45ca951ebfccd3b6596b38d0b83ce7 19) Combining Drug Counseling Methods Proves Effective in Treating Cocaine Addiction , Information on drug counseling http://www.nida.nih.gov/NIDA_Notes/NNVol14N5/Combining.html 20) Coping Skills Help Patients Recognize and Resist the Urge to Use Cocaine , Information on therapy for cue-induced relapse http://www.nida.nih.gov/NIDA_Notes/NNVol13N6/Coping.html

Albert Einstein

He later moved to Italy where he got kicked UT of school because he was setting a bad example to other students despite his fascination in Math. After leaving school he decided to become a math teacher to support him in his studies of math and physics. In 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich, Switzerland to train to become a teacher in physics and mathematics. He failed the first attempt but passed the next year and gained his diploma, and accepted a position as a technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office.In 1905 he obtained his doctors degree, ND was also the year he published four of his most influential research papers. One including his world famous equation e=Mac that unlocked mysteries of the universe unknown. Later in 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and became professor in the University of Berlin. Ten years later in 1915 Einstein completed his general theory of relativity, and in 1921 he was awarded the no ble peace prize for Physics. It launched him international fame and he was thought a genius all over the world.Later on in 1933 Einstein immigrated to America to become professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton. He became a United States Citizen in 1940 and then retired in 1945. Einstein then died on April 18, 1955 at the age of 76, and donated his brain and vital organs to scientific study. Albert Einstein has several Scientific Contributions one of which is the Quantum Theory. He suggested that light doesn't travel in waves but as electric currents; from his theory inventors were able to develop television and movies.

Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid Essay

The legendary and controversial story behind Butch Cassidy and his partner, the Sundance Kid, goes back to the time of the American Old West. This time period was marked by exploration and people’s struggle with cultural conflicts, economic growth or falls, and mental as well as physical drama. Harry Longabaugh (the â€Å"Sundance Kid†) Criminal career started prior to his joining the â€Å"Wild Bunch†. On February 27, 1887, while traveling from South Dakotas Black Hills back to the ranch, named â€Å"N bar N†, where he worked at as a cowboy. Twenty years old Harry Longabaugh passed through a ranch called the â€Å"Three V Ranch†. While passing through this ranch, which was owned by a group of English investors, young Longabaugh stole a grey horse (branded J on its shoulder), a gun, and a saddle. He continued his journey to N bar N while the Three V Ranch’s employees were looking for a young man that is smooth-faced and has grey eyes. After unsuccessful two weeks of searching, with information given from one of the Three V Ranch employees, Harry Longabaugh was arrested by the James Ryan, Sherriff of Sundance, Wyoming. A few months later, while heading as a prisoner west to Rapid City, South Dakota, Longabaugh slipped from his handcuffs and jumped of the moving train while the sheriff was in the bathroom. After coming back to Wyoming with no luck of relocating his escaped prisoner, Sheriff Ryan offered a $250 for Longabaugh. In a not so smart move, Longabaugh returned to N bar N and was soon caught by the Sheriff’s Deputy. He arrested and was sentenced to 18 months in jail. During the time he spent in jail, Harry Longabaugh was given his new nickname, by which he is known today: the â€Å"Sundance Kid†. A few years later, late in august 1891, Butch Cassidy, that was considered as the â€Å"worst man in four states†¦Utah, Colorado, Idaho, and Wyoming. †(â€Å"The Washington Post†,pg. 20’), followed his future partner’s path to prison. While Butch Cassidy was staying at a place called †Mail Camp†, Billy Nutcher, a part of the â€Å"Jack Bliss† gang, rode in trailing three saddle horses. He put his horses under care and joined a person named Burnaugh and his guests, including Butch Cassidy. Butch was interested in Nutcher’s business, as well as his horses, and a discussion about a sale soon followed. After a short discussion, a deal was struck, and Cassidy became the owner of three horses. The problem was that not a lot of attention was paid to the paperwork. Ranchers in the area started to notice that their horses were disappearing, and soon discovered that Cassidy and one of his associates in the horse dealing â€Å"business† were stealing the animals. After one of the ranchers served a complaint and an investigation started. With the lawmen on their tail, Cassidy and his associate hided in a ranch, but were discovered shortly thereafter. They were taken into custody for a few months before going into trail, and were then found guilty. After a few months they were brought a few times in front of a judge with new evidence. At the end, Cassidy was found guilty and sentenced to prison. Not long after his release from prison, Butch Cassidy started to gather some of his outlaw friends. One of its first recruits was the Sundance Kid. This new formed group was later known as the famous â€Å"Wild Bunch†. The story of Butch Cassidy (real name, Robert LeRoy Parker) and the Sundance Kid as partners in crime is in fact became well known by the American Western film, directed by George Roy Hill and written by William Goldman, carrying the name of the two- â€Å"Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid†. The film features the two as two friends who try to be as successful as they can be as robbers while escaping the law. The main cliffhanger of the movie is that the two believe they are being chased by a lawman that was paid to kill them. Consequently, the both escape to Bolivia while being accompanied by the Sundance Kid’s girlfriend Etta, and become successful bank robbers known as â€Å"Los Bandidos Yanquis†. At some point they do attempt to live the â€Å"straight† life, but encounter lawmen that recognize them and start a shootout. The film ends at a freeze frame shot of the two charging out of a building while participating in a shootout, which they started, after believing they saw the man who was paid to kill them. Although the film is based loosely on fact and has holes in it, it prorates the most famous train robbery that was conducted by the Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, alongside their gang: the robbery of the Union Pacific overland flyer train near Wilcox, Wyoming. In the first robbery, which probably accrued a few years earlier, was successful. According to a newspaper, Pacific train no. 8 was held by a bandits at about 1 o’clock at august 21. The robbery was successful (for the bandits), and luckily no one was hurt (â€Å"the Atlanta Constitution†, pg. ). In the second robbery, unlike the first one that goes well, Butch Cassidy uses to much dynamite and blowing up the baggage car. While the gang, which consisted of nine members, (as reported by one of the gang members to the â€Å"Washington Post†) was desperately trying to gather up their money, lawmen arrive to the scene and a famous and massive man hunt begins. The gang scatters Besides the film, there are many more records of that day. One of them is an eyewitness who was actually a mail clerk working on the Union Pacific Railroad. His name was Robert Lawson and he recounted his experience in the June 8, 1899 issue of the Buffalo Bulletin, a newspaper that operates even today. â€Å"As soon as we came to a standstill, Conductor Storey went forward to see what was the matter and saw several men with guns, one of whom shouted that they were going to blow up the train with dynamite†¦Following close behind the shooting came a terrific explosion, and one of the doors was completely wrecked and most of the car windows broken. The bandits then threatened to blow up the whole car if we didn’t get out, so Bruce gave the word and we jumped down, and were immediately lined up and searched for weapons†¦The men all wore masks reaching below their necks and of the three I observed, one looked to be six foot tall, the others being about ordinary sized men. The leader appeared to be about 50 years old and spoke with a squeaky voice, pitched very high. (Robert Lawson, the â€Å"Buffalo Bulletin†) Two years after robbing the Union Pacific Railroad , Butch Cassidy, the Sundance Kid, and Ethel â€Å"Etta† Place (the Sundance Kid’s girlfriend), fled to New York City and from there they departed to Buenos Aires, Argentina, aboard the British steamer â€Å"Herminius†. There they settled together on a 15,000-acre that they purchased on the east bank of the Rio Blanco (west-central Argentina). On February 14, 1905, Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid robbed a bank in Rio Gallegos (the capital and largest settlement of the Patagonian province of Santa Cruz in Argentina) and escaped with the largest amount of money that they will ever manage to escape with. After that massive bank robbery, they sold their ranch because lawmen were beginning to suspect them. They fled north aboard the steamer â€Å"Condor† across Nahuel Huapi Lake and into Chile. A year later, Etta would leave with the Sundance Kid back to the United States and Cassidy would become a Miner in the Santa Vera Cruz range of the central Bolivian Andes. Later on, the Sundance Kid reunited with Cassidy and they worked together at the Concordia Tin Mine. The cause for Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid’s deaths are less known and still remain a mystery. The most accepted theory for their deaths todays is that they died at a shootout at Bolivia. Another theory about the cause for their death is only about Butch Cassidy, which says that he was shot died at Chiloe, where he operated a successful ranch for five years. Never the less, those theories did not stop people from believing that there is a chance that the two men who were killed by the authorities in Bolivia were not Butch Cassidy and the Sundance kid. Some say that the police made a mistake, and that the real Butch Cassidy and the Sundance kid returned to the US and lived there for the rest of their lives. Some say that Butch Cassidy died peacefully Paraguay, Chiloe, or even at Spokane, Washington in 1935. Among those claimers this is even Cassidy’s sister, who claimed that Cassidy came for a visit in the fall of 1925. â€Å"Take your pick. There are a lot of Butch Cassidy tales in this part of Argentina because he spent so much time here. Many descendants of those who knew Cassidy live in Bariloche or in the nearby countryside, and the local museum exhibits photos and documents relating to the North American Bandits. †

Software Testing in Safety Critical Systems

Abstract Today, many safety-critical applications are controlled by computer software. Therefore effective testing tools are required to provide a high degree of safety and to reduce severe failures too minimum. The paper examines existing regulating standards in safety-critical systems. By comparing different software testing methods the requirements and challenges in safety-critical software testing are being evaluated. The QUICKIES standard serves as the mall regulatory framework for all separately systems and provides the basis for the creation of application- and Interdependently tankards.Moreover it defines certain safety integrity levels depending on the field of application and recommends testing methods according to these levels. In model- based safety testing a usage model with restricted space state domain is used to generate representative test cases. Statistical testing is a mathematical approach that uses a high number of test cases to reach a significant result. The ma in challenge of all safety-related testing methods Is to reduce testing time and complexity without distorting the significance of the test.These can for example be transportation systems, power plants, and medical applications. As people's lives depend on the correct function of such control systems and their software, thorough testing is required before they can be admitted to operation. There are many different software testing methods. Most of them only analyze the probability of a failure but do not value its severity. However, in safety-critical systems a failure that has severe consequences, even if it is extremely rare, can not be accepted. Therefore testing in this field has to be adopted accordingly.The purpose of this paper is to find and compare the latest methods for safety-critical footwear testing and to identify the most common industry standard in this field. Moreover the requirements and challenges in safety-critical software testing will be elaborated. At the begi nning the paper will provide definitions that are required for the understanding of the subsequent chapters. After that, an introduction to the JUICE 508 safety standard, which serves as a basis for most industry-specific standards, is given.The chapter â€Å"Testing Methods† will address some of the latest safety-related software testing methods in detail. 5 Definitions 2 Definitions 2. 1 Reliability and Safety In safety critical systems both, reliability and safety are required to achieve the goals of dependability. However, reliability and safety are two different attributes of dependability. The reliability, R(t) , of a system is a function of time. It is defined as the conditional probability that the system will perform its intended function in a defined way over a given time period and under certain specified and assumed conditions.The most used parameter to characterize reliability is the Mean Time To Failure (MATT). The safety, S(t), of a system is defined as the pro bability that a system ill either perform its functions correctly or will discontinue its functions in a way that does not interrupt the operation of other systems or Jeopardize the safety of any people associated with the system [1]. Based on these definitions, in reliability testing all failures are weighted equally, whereas in safety testing the failures are weighted according to their severity.Therefore, a reliable system may be quite unsafe and a safe system may be very unreliable. 2. 2 Safety-critical System States very complex to generate. As many states are unreachable or very difficult to reach hey can be reduced to a relatively small number of representative system states. These states are grouped in three subsets: Normal State Subset (NUNS), Fail-Safe State subset (FPS) and Risky state subset (IRS). Their relationships are: s=Unusualness; 6 Their inter-dependability is described as a Markova chain (see figure 1) [2]. Figure 1 : Three-state Markova Model for Safety-critica l Systems(Source: 2. Markova Chain Usage Model The Markova chain usage model describes the possible usage of a software based on a predicted environment. It can be used to generate statistical test cases and to estimate the software reliability. In an Markova model the transition from operation I to operation J can be denoted by an ordered pair . Let be the transition probability from operation I to operation J, with and EX=I .. N p(is)=1, where n is the number of operations. The transitions and transition probabilities can be represented in the form of a matrix [3].Each specific usage of the program corresponds to a path X=(XI, XX,†¦ Xi) in the Markova chain where Xi corresponds to the I-the operation. P(Xi, X]) determines the next executed operation J after execution of operation I. Since the operations are random rabbles, each path X=(XI, XX,†¦ ) forms a stochastic process. For a particular path x=(ox, XSL ,†¦ ), the corresponding path execution probability is [3]: 7 pox pop , x 3 Standards There exist both national and international standards and guidelines at different depths and classifications which define requirements for safety-related technologies. Yester and provides the basis for the creation of application- and underspecified standards. It includes more than 500 pages of normative and informative specifications and proposals. Nowadays most safety-related standards are based on he JUICE 508 in combination with the previously applicable requirements [4]. The JUICE 508 defines so called Safety Integrity Levels (Sills) which serve as a measure for the safety requirements on a certain system. The following table shows the different SILLS as well as the corresponding probability of failure and application examples.Probability of Failure One Failure in x Years Consequences Application Example The last three parts, are informative and include practical examples which should help to simplify the application of the standard. The ‘CE 61 508 describes the complete life cycle of safety-related systems from planning to decommissioning and refers to all aspects related to the use and requirements for electrical / electronic / programmable electronic systems (E / E / PEE) for separately functions [4]. According to the focus of this paper only the parts relating to software testing are mentioned in the following paragraph. Figure 2 shows the verification and validation process in software development according to the JUICE 508 standard.The E/E/PEE system safety requirements are applied both on the system architecture and the software specifications. Every level in the system architecture verifies if it meets the requirements of the next higher layer (I. E. Coding fulfills module design requirements, module design fulfills software yester design requirements etc. ). Moreover each system architecture layer is tested by a specific test. As soon as the test circuit is closed successfully the software can be validated. The st andard also recommends and rates certain test methods according to the required SILL. In order to meet the requirements of the ‘CE standard a series.Test methods comprised in the ‘CE 61 508 are categorized as follows [6]: Failure analysis (I. E. Cause consequence programs) Dynamic analysis and testing (I. E. Test case execution from model-based test case generation) Functional and black box testing (I. . Equivalence classes and input partition testing, including boundary value analysis) Performance testing (I. E. Response timings and memory constraints) Static analysis (I. E. Static analysis of run time error behavior) 9 Figure 2: ‘CE 61 508-3 Verification and Validation Process(Source: 10 Testing Methods 4 Testing Methods There are many different software testing methods.A detailed introduction to all different methods would be far beyond the scope of this paper. Therefore the author will only mention two methods he deems most relevant in the field of safety-relat ed software testing. Finally both methods are compared and their possible application areas are evaluated. 4. 1 Model-based Safety Testing In model-based testing explicit behavior models that encode the intended behavior of a system and its environment are used. These models generate pairs of inputs and outputs. The output of such a model represents the expected output of the system under test (SOT). Mineral model-based testing method. The system safety-related behavior is defined in the safety requirements specification. Test cases are derived from a safety model that is extracted from the SHUT and from formal safety requirements. This model encodes the intended behavior and maps each possible input to the corresponding output. Safety test selection criteria relate to the functional safety of the safety- critical system, to the structure of the model (state coverage, transition coverage), and also to a well defined set of system faults.Safety test case specifications are used to fo rmalize the safety test selection criteria and render them operational. For the given safety model and the safety test case specification, an automatic safety test case generator and optimizer generates the safety test case suite. Finally, the concreted input part of a test case is submitted to the SHUT and the SOT's output is recorded. The concentration of the input part of a test case is performed by a safety test engine. Besides executing the safety case, it can also compare the output of the SHUT with the expected output as provided by the safety test case [6]. 1 Figure 3: Model-based Safety Testing according Gang You et al. (Source: Test Case Generation One of the most commonly tools for test case generation are model checking techniques. The main purpose of model checking is to verify a formal safety property (given as a logic formula) on a system model. In test case generation, model checking is used in order to find violations of certain formal safety properties. Safety mode ls of safety-critical software systems may have a huge number of states. Therefore the greatest challenge when using a model checker is to cope with the state space explosion.As a countermeasure, Gang You et al. ‘s approach applies the safety model, which is derived from SHUT and certain safety requirements. The model 12 limits the number of states by splitting them into three subsets (NUNS, FPS, IRS) containing only representative states (see 2. X). Moreover the safety model encodes he intended behavior, and from its structure, safety test cases can be derived. It thereby restricts the possible inputs into the SHUT and the set of possible separately behaviors of the SOT.Hence, to reduce the amount of testing and guarantee the quality of testing the model checker will search those most frequently entered states and generate the corresponding safety test cases without searching the whole state spaces. The selection of states is based on the safety requirements (Sills). Generall y speaking, the safety model can be seen as a test selection criterion generate safety-related test cases. Figure 4 shows the corresponding flow chart. 1 . The system safety model in the form of a finite state machine (FSML) is transformed into the input language of the model checker tool (SPIN) 2.Each test requirement of a given safety criterion is formulated as a temporal logic expression (LET). 3. Based on the Markova model of a system, the state space is divided into three subsets. 4. In term of these subsets, the negation of each expression of the formula is verified by the model checker. If there is an execution path in the model that does not satisfy the negated formula then it is presented by the model checker as a counter-example. This path becomes a test sequence that satisfies the original test requirement. 5.The inputs and outputs that form the executable test case are extracted from the counter-example or are derived by a corresponding guided simulation of the model. 13 Figure 4: Test Case Generation Framework according Gang You et al. (Source: 4. 2 Statistical Testing As already mentioned in 2. 1 reliability is defined as the conditional probability that the system will perform its intended function. This chapter will link the reliability of a system with the Markova usage model (see 2. 3). Let f: be a function that shows the failure probability of a software. The argument D represents the possible usage set of the software.Each element AXED is a usage path from quo (initial operation) to send (final operation) The relation between software reliability R and failure probability F is: R=l -F (2). In the assumed model the failure behavior of the software only depends on its usage path X and not on the input. This means that the input domain corresponding to the used X is homogeneous. The simplest way of obtaining unbiased reliability estimation of the software is to select N test paths XSL, XX, †¦ , CNN according to the usage model. The exult of the function f(Xi) is 1 if the path fails and O otherwise.Then the arithmetic 14 mean of f(Xi) is an unbiased estimate PEP(f(X)), which is the mathematical expectation of the software failure probability under transition matrix P. Hence, the software reliability can be expressed as R=l -PEP(f(X)) [3]. Critical operations are infrequently executed in real applications. This generates the problem that development organizations have to spend too much time when performing adequate statistical testing. Although one can overcome these drawbacks by increasing the execution probabilities of critical operations during statistical entire software under test. Yang Going et al. 3] found a possible approach to overcome this problem: Importance Sampling (IS) Based Safety-critical Software Statistical Testing Acceleration. IS Based Safety-critical Software Statistical Testing Acceleration This chapter presents the Is-based software statistical testing acceleration method. It ensures that the cr itical operations tested adequately by adjusting the transition probabilities in the matrix of the usage model, and at the same time, produces the unbiased reliability of the software under test. The IS technique reduces simulation run times hen estimating the probabilities of rare events by Monte Carlo simulations [3].For complex software with a large model matrix, the simulation procedure is often extremely time consuming. To overcome this problem, Yang Going et al. ‘s approach adopts a simulated annealing algorithm to calculate the optimal matrix Q. This widely used optimization method employs stochastic techniques to avoid being trapped in local optimal solution. The 16 exact mathematical explanation of this algorithm is complex and would be out of the scope of this paper. [3] 4. 3 Method Comparison Although model-based and statistical testing follow completely different approaches, the challenges are very similar.Both methods have to limit the extent and complexity of tes ting. Model-based testing reduces the number of test cases by restricting the state space domain of the Markova chain usage model. Whereas statistical testing reduces the number by changing the relation between critical and normal test cases with help off likelihood ratio. 5 Conclusion Today an increasing number of safety-critical applications are controlled by computer software. Therefore effective testing tools are required to provide a high degree of safety and to reduce severe failures to a minimum. The paper focused on

A Study On A Structural Necessity Architecture Essay

The necessity of construction is barely a simple topic. Discussions on the subject have ranged from Levi-Strauss ‘ accounts of infrastructures which exist beyond our ability to straight grok, to unite world-systems such as Wallerstein proposed, and of class the counter statements against such a incorporate system much like Mintz ‘ offered. Indeed depending on our definition of ‘necessity ‘ and ‘structure ‘ the form and range of such statement can go radically different. Within the societal scientific disciplines the term construction besides seems have different options. At possibly the most cardinal degree, within the field, the societal scientific disciplines themselves are broken into separate subjects in an attempt to decently analyze, analyse, and categorise different types of information, therefore supplying a sense of order or construction. Yet even these divisions are inconsistent across the field. At one institute sociology and anthropology may be joined in a individual plan of survey yet at others they are wholly separate and possibly assorted with another, such as linguistics. Beyond specifying itself the societal scientific disciplines have a singular ability for classifying, reclassifying, and re-reclassifying things ( including but barely limited to race, civilization, historical periods, theoretical models, methodological analysiss, and gender ) on a regular footing. In 1978, Edward Said, in his book Orientalism, identified a really controversial division between Europe and the Orient. Since so there have been important arguments on the ground for such a division, and even if such a division genuinely existed. Janet Abu-Lughod, in 1989 wrote â€Å" Analyzing a System in Formation † , in which she agreed that there is a recognizable division between the Europe and the remainder of the universe. Indeed she suggests that there is a incorporate universe construction and it is based on a Eurocentric theoretical account which developed around the 14th century. Within societal scientific disciplines this of course raises the inquiry, is the strong accent we give to construction an unconscious affect of the Eurocentric beginning of our theoretical account? Or is construction a more permeant thought? This essay contends that while a big part of the authorship in societal scientific discipline literature is Eurocentric in beginning, the construction, and more specifically the thought of construction is non limited to European idea. Levi-Strauss ‘ thoughts of infrastructure offers a strong statement that construction, as Abu-Lughod describes it, is simply the superstructure representation of an implicit in infrastructure common throughout all human civilizations. Then before turn toing the signifier of construction in the superstructure of our modern universe system, we must inquire whether determine whether construction is needed, or instead can we gestate of a universe, or societal scientific disciplines, without construction? Finally, manners of communicating will be used to demo how construction is exhaustively embedded in our universe even when it is non perceived. InAnalyzing a System in Formation, Janet Abu-Lughod really indicates her beliefs that the current construction of societal scientific disciplines is dominated by its European beginnings. Indeed while citing others, she gives provinces that the current universe system is wholly Eurocentric. For illustration, she recognizes Immanuel Wallerstein for coining the term â€Å" modern world-system † and that Europe lead development of this system, which has lasted more than 500 old ages. ( Abu-Lughod, 4 ) She supports this contention with the plants of Fernand Braudel and Eric Wolff who describe how a euro-centered universe was established in the 14th century and was the footing for the current universe system. ( Abu-Lughod, 9 ) Indeed, she accuses Braudel of doing an â€Å" unconscious Eurocentric faux pas. † ( Abu-Lughod, 11 ) In these illustrations the thought of Eurocentrism is difficult to lose. As Abu-Lughod points out, â€Å" Before Europe becameoneof the world-economies in the twelfth and 13th centuries†¦ there were legion pre-existent world-economies. † ( 12 ) Looking at the modern system it is possibly excessively easy to see the strength of the European influence upon the system, whether in currency rates, human rights issues, or a assortment of other countries. But to state that the modern system is purely based on this influence suggests that all other systems have either been discarded or go subservient to the Euro-centric theoretical account. Yet we have merely to come in a non-European state to recognize merely how diverse the differences elsewhere remain. Surely the strong grades of European influences are felt in South Africa or India, where English is widely spoken. And similarly in Algeria and Egypt where Arabic is still the national linguistic communication but a turning per centum of the population speak French and English, severally. Yet in each instance, although they have adopted parts of the Euro-centric theoretical account, they have each molded their ain signifier. Rather than being consumed Europe they have been influenced by it. But the influence is non unidimensional, instead influences flow back and Forth between parts. The ongoing argument in France sing hijab and other spiritual symbols in public schools is declarative of the concern felt by many in France of the turning Muslim population. Likewise, the alterations in corporate leading methods over the past decennary, from individualistic to more group-oriented, reflect an inflow of new thoughts from Japan and other states in Southeast Asia. In the terminal, Abu-Lughod was at least partly right ; Europe has influenced the construction of the world-system. But the world-system, and including Europe, has been influenced by the remainder of the universe. In a similar mode, while the construction of societal scientific disciplines found its beginnings in Europe it has, particularly in recent decennaries, been strongly influenced by the remainder of the universe. The construction that remains is non a massive creative activity but instead an merger which is invariably in flux. Leading possibly to the inevitable inquiry, are we utilizing the right, or the best system? Or do we even need to make this construction? When composingThe Ritual Processin 1969 Victor Turner gave us the term ‘anti-structure ‘ . His term was non meant to connote a deficiency of construction. In â€Å" Metaphors of Anti-Structure in Religious Culture † he clarified his term stating, â€Å" †¦ the ‘anti ‘ is here merely used strategically and does non connote a extremist negativeness. † ( 272 ) He farther explains, â€Å" I do non seek the obliteration of affair by signifier. † ( 273 ) Rather than proposing non-structure, the term anti-structure is conceived as yet another portion of the whole non to the full accounted for within the bing construction ; they are two-sides of the same coin. Within societal scientific disciplines as a whole at that place ever seems to be a construction. Disciplines are broken down by topics or methods. Subjects are broken down by location or clip period. Information is so pigeon-holed into a peculiar subject within a topic under a subject. Sometimes these topics and subjects are realigned, and sometimes information is referenced in multiple topographic points, but there is consistent effort to happen a topographic point everything ; or as the expression goes, â€Å" A topographic point for everything and everything in its topographic point. † But why must everything be put in its topographic point? And is there truly a topographic point for everything? Historically, our classification systems last until something does n't suit. After seeking legion unsuccessful ways to accommodate our theoretical account and our information we acknowledge the job and expression for a new construction ; what sociology of cognition would cal cubic decimeter a revolution of cognition. But is a construction necessary? Can we gestate of our societal scientific discipline information outside the restraints of construction? If it is possible, we do we invariably seek to develop a more accurate and/or effectual construction? One might reason that early ethnographers, such as Marco Polo and Sir Richard Francis Burton worked outside the restraints of construction. They successfully documented important information without being purely attached to a peculiar subject. Indeed such plants frequently contain a wealth of information because they include a great assortment of different types of information. In a similar mode Clifford Geertz ‘ experience as described inDeep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfightcan be viewed as working outside the constituted construction. His intended survey was, no uncertainty, sanctioned and developed along certain guidelines. However, when he allowed himself to be caught up in rabble outlook brought on by the sudden reaching of the constabulary he was non moving within the restraints of any guidelines. Indeed Geertz ‘ description of the police officer ‘s action on page 415 suggest that he was movingagainstthe established construction. When we read about the Balinese cockfight and implicit in construction is easy to individuality. Peopless are identified by originals and specific subjects are ethical motives are indicated. The analysis itself is really structured, and that is where the construction seems to fall within much of the societal scientific disciplines, particularly anthropology. In order to pass on the information to others we construction it in such as manner that it becomes relevant to our audience. Yet the existent assemblage of information, though possibly limited by a pre-defined field site and research inquiries, can be a non-structured action. In my research of the effects of nomadic communicating engineerings, I frequently find it hard to non see a construction. Due to my experience working on the mechanical side of the engineering, I frequently construction the engineerings, and thereby the people, without detecting. A adult male in a suit utilizing a Blackberry phone seems is deemed a concern adult male, while a similar adult male have oning denims and utilizing an iPhone is deemed a college pupil. Likewise, person utilizing Linux is considered more technologically savvy than person utilizing Windows or an Apple OS, irrespective of their existent competency. From a proficient position, nomadic phones require a physical web to enable communicating. Unlike a land line phone which offers interaction between to fixed points in infinite, a nomadic phone offers an tantamount interaction at two random points. Furthermore, the cellular engineerings allow for non-stationary points, significance communicators are no longer tied to a fixed location. Enabling this nomadic communicating is an substructure web kindred to Levi-Strauss ‘ infrastructure of society. This is the unseeable, underlying system which ties everything together. With nomadic phones, a cellular web must be developed and maintained. This web must let easy connexion and must be linked to other cellular webs to enable transferring of one communicator to different locations with disrupting the manner of communicating. Finally, for this method to be genuinely effectual the web must be built around the communicators and their venues ; a cellular web in an empty desert serves no intent. Developing an effectual web therefore requires consciousness of bing locations of communicators and a method of mapping that information into a cellular web. Thus a construction develops based on the demands of a community. Of class, the communicators are by and large incognizant of this web. A adult male simply dials a figure on his Mobile phone, irrespective of where he is, and his married woman replies at some other unknown and apparently unrelated location. There is no demand for the users of this system to be cognizant of its nature, however the system does be. It is really easy to look around and see merely pandemonium. We are non required to see constructions in our day-to-day life. We take the construction itself for granted, yet that does non intend it does non be. We may gestate of cases where persons move outside the construction, or in a non-structured signifier. Yet when we seek communicate these actions we do so in a structured mode. The analysis, the manner we present the information, even the really linguistic communication itself contains an in agreement upon construction which allows us to pass on. But the construction is non massive and unchanging. A changeless duologue between different influences forms and reshapes the construction. We influence others even while we are influenced. At times a certain type of construction, such as the European theoretical account may look to rule but in clip even it is seen to be influenced by others. In the terminal thought of construction is in an built-in thought throughout the universe, a nd it is merely the peculiar signifier, what Levi-Strauss called the superstructure, that is distinguishable.BibliographyAbu-Lughod, J. ( 1989 ) . â€Å" Analyzing a System in Formation. † InBefore European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250-1350. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Pp 3-40. Althusser, L. ( 1970 ) .Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses.Retrieved on 28 Feb 10, From The Louis Althusser Internet Archive: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.marxists.org/reference/archive/althusser/1970/ideology.htm. DiTornaso, N. ( 1982 ) . â€Å" ‘Sociological Reductionism ‘ from Parsons to Althusser: Associating Action and Structure in Social Theory. †American Sociological Review, 47 ( 1 ) : 14-28. Geertz, C. ( 1973 ) . â€Å" Deep Play: Notes on a Balinese Cockfight. † InThe Interpretation of Cultures. London, UK: Hutchinson, Pp 412-454. Geertz, C. ( 1973 ) . â€Å" Thick Description: Toward an Interpretive Theory of Culture. † InThe Interpretation of Cultures. London, UK: Hutchinson, Pp 3-30. Goffman, E. ( 1963 ) . â€Å" Stigma and Social Identity. † InStigma: Notes on the Management of a Spoiled Identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Pp. 1-40. Levi-Strauss, C. ( 1958 ) . â€Å" Structural Analysis in Linguistics and in Anthropology. † Retrieved on 13 Feb 10, From The Marxist Internet Archivess: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/levistra.htm. Mintz, S. ( 1977 ) . â€Å" The Alleged World System: Local Initiative and Local Response. †Dialectical Anthropology, 2 ( 4 ) : 253-270. Nugent, D. ( 2009 ) . â€Å" Knowledge and Empire: The Social Sciences and United States Imperial Expansion. †Identities:Global Studies in Culture and Power, 17 ( 1 ) : 2-44. Trouillot, M-R. ( 1991 ) . â€Å" Anthropology and the Savage Slot: The Poeticss and Politicss of Otherness. † InRecapturing Anthropology: Working in the Present. Richard Fox ( erectile dysfunction ) . Pp. 17-44. Turner, V. ( 1975 ) . â€Å" Metaphors of Anti-Structure in Religious Culture. † InDramas, Fields and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Pp. 272-300.

Law of Employment Assignment Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Law of Employment Assignment - Case Study Example To make matters worse, he was upset that he was not able to spend more time with his wife, who was expecting their son, who was their firstborn child. In October of 2008, Ahmed went to see his general practitioner, who advised him to take a three week leave, as he was suffering from mental and physical exhaustion. Ahmed's situation became more dismal because upon his return to work, his line manager increased his workload by making him responsible for Eastern Scotland and Northeastern England. When Ahmed explained that the position would be too overwhelming for him and that he did not wish to accept it, his line manager informed him that if he did not accept his new responsibilities, he would be out of a job. Reluctantly, Ahmed took on the responsibilities because he could not afford to lose his job; however, it was not too long before he realized that he was unable to handle matters. Ahmed again visited his doctor, who advised him to take a four week recuperation period, as he was s uffering from severe stress and anxiety. Ahmed did just that, and when he returned to work in early January 2009, his request was granted to have a lower position, so long as his salary was reduced. Ahmed's request was not granted in a way that he thought, as he was now reduced to receiving commission only wages and he was subjected to massive workplace bullying. Not to mention, he was constantly hounded by higher ups to close sales. When Ahmed could take it any longer, he resigned in April 2009. Now, Ahmed wishes to bring damage claims against his employer for psychiatric injury, as a result of the stress he has suffered from being expected to do too much at work, as well as for the bullying and lack of support on the part of his employer. Should Ahmed pursue action against his employer, he has a very good chance of winning the case for a number of reasons. For one, Ahmed's employer violated the UK Health and Safety at Work Act of 1974 in at least two ways. According to a government website that explains the Health and Safety at Work Act in detail, it states that this legislation is enforced to insure that the workplace remains safe for employees. This law requires that an employee is to be provided with a safe work place, as well as a safe work system, meaning that the work environment is to be free of health hazards, and considerations need to be taken of how the job is affecting the health of the employee (HSE, 2010). One way that Ahmed's employer violated this particular act is that he failed to provide him with a safe and healthy work environment. Ahmed was subjected to extremely stressful work conditions, and when Ahmed asked for a reprieve from his line manager, as he asked for a lower and less stressful positi on in the company, his job security was threatened because his line manager told him that he either stuck with the position that he had or he would have no job at all. Afraid for losing his employment, he did the best that he could to stick with his position, until it made him ill. It seemed that the higher ups cared only about what Ahmed could do for the company. They neglected to care about how the workload was affecting his health, despite Ahmed making this known on not one but two occasions. As a result of making his concerns known, he was subjected to workplace bullying in two ways. One way that this was the case was that he was bullied into sticking with his position, despite how it was affecting his health in that he was threatened by his managers. Another way that he

Major Project Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Major Project - Research Paper Example As such, these states are referred to as the â€Å"right to work states.† The right to work laws legally ensures that the right of workers to make decisions as to whether to be union members or not, is upheld. The institution of these statutes in the states that have accepted them prohibits institution of agreements made between employers and labor unions, which compel employees to pay union fees or be members of unions, either prior to or after being hired (DelPo & Guerin, 2011). Currently, there are 23 states which are considered right-to-work states and the total would be considered 24 because the territory of Guam has also adopted the laws (Cooper, 2004). State statutes are in a constant flux and there may be new members too as other states such as Indiana contemplate instituting the laws. A large number of states that adopted the right-to-work laws did so in the 1940s and 50s after the legislation of the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947. This act allowed the states to institute the right-to-work laws after the 1935 pro-union Wagner Act was deemed to have given too much power. Currently, 27states as well as the District of Columbia have not yet adopted the rights-to-work laws (Cooper, 2004). The table below shows the legislation timeline for each of the 23 states. Note: It has to be noted that Indiana (1965), New Hampshire, and Delaware (1947) instituted the right-to-work laws in the years within the brackets preceding each state, but they are not included in the table above because they have since then repealed these laws. Prior to the legislation of the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947, which permits states to legislate right-to-work laws, the 1935 Wagner Act allowed unions to have exclusive representation powers. This allowed unions to be the voice of all employees in unionized organizations. Under this legislation the union would be recognized as the official employee’s voice if it could be able to secure 50% of the employees’ votes. For example, if an

Economic Inequalities in The United States Research Paper

Economic Inequalities in The United States - Research Paper Example The wish of most Americans is to bring the economic equality to an end. The society has been involved in the search of the possible social solutions to the increased inequality. The possible solutions include reducing taxes on the income of the low class group, increased taxes on the wealth and income of the high class group and adjusting the social security tax. Social nature of the problem Economic inequality exists in the United States due individuals having varied amount of money, power or even prestige. This problem creates different social classes among the people. Individuals in higher classes enjoy higher income and have continued to accumulate their wealth, while the lower class individuals in the society incur higher rates of taxes on their low income. As inequality in terms of resources widens, individuals with more wealth have become powerful and are be able to attain their goals. They will be able to accomplish their vested interests at the expense of the lower social cl ass individuals. They are also influential in the society and are powerfully in making different decisions. Inequality in income results from several causes, some of these causes are relatively clear, others unknown and others are still under dispute. The basic cause of household income inequality at a structural level is variations in the yearly hours worked per household. It can be broken down into the product of the total number of workers, the yearly weeks worked and the weekly hours worked. This is a very significant factor among individuals in the lower class level. However, it remains minor among individuals who belong to the higher class. Beyond the total hours individuals have worked, income inequality arises out of; the variation of the income rates per hour and the income which has not been earned, these differences is mainly due to differences in the education level. Income inequality is common in the United States due to the variation of an individual position in terms of responsibility, its importance and the complexity. Income remains to be a common form of compensation. In most cases the market value is reduced by abundant supply hence, income is increased significantly by the possession of scarce skills. The most common source of income among the lower class individuals in America is not occupation but the government welfare. Causes of the problem There are several causes of economic inequality in the United States. These include; difference in the individual’s wealth and income, most individuals depends on the income they get from their jobs. Others however, benefits from both their job’s income and their wealth. The big problem is that those with higher sources of income get larger percentage of increase than those with little income. The wealthy are able to accumulate their wealth and income for several years unlike those with little income and no wealth. This creates a wide gap between the two groups of individuals. Those who are wealthy are in a position to vie for political offices and invest more money in order to win. They will also be able to interact with other individuals of the same class and who also have similar power and interests. Another cause of inequality in the capitalistic society is that there is an existing belief that the government influence has to be maintained at a minimal level (Sen and Foster1997). When the